The reference table is your BEST FRIEND in earth science. This page will explain the information in your ESRT and how to use it.
If you are in need of a copy, download one here.
If you are in need of a copy, download one here.
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ESRT Page 1: Radioactive Decay Data
This table an be used to solve problems involving the calculations of absolute age. Half-life is the amount of time it takes for one half of a radioactive sample to change into its decay product. For example, it takes 5.7 x 103 (5,700) years for one half of a given carbon-14 sample to change into its decay product, nitrogen-14 (N14). |
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ESRT Page 1: Specific Heats of Common Materials
Specific heat is energy needed to change the temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1º C. Specific heat is important for understanding climate. Water has a higher specific heat than land materials. Because of this, water changes temperature more slowly than does land. |
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ESRT Page 1: Equations
Eccentricity of an ellipse: Use this formula to calculate eccentricity, the deviation of a planet’s orbit from a perfect circle. Eccentricity can range from 0 to 1. Gradient: Use this formula to calculate the change in a field value (elevation, humidity, temperature, etc.) between two points a certain distance apart. Rate of change: Use this formula to calculate how the value of a variable (humidity, temperature, sea level, etc.) changes with time. Density of a substance: Use this formula to calculate density, the ratio of the mass of a substance to its volume. This formula can be used to find volume (Mass/Density = Volume) and mass (Density x Volume = Mass) |
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ESRT Page 1: Properties of Water
When water changes state, latent heat is either absorbed or given off (released). Latent heat is an important reservoir of atmospheric energy. Melting is the change from the solid to the liquid state. Freezing is the change from liquid to solid. Notice that the same amount of energy is involved in both processes. Vaporization is the change from liquid to gas. The opposite process, condensation, is the change from gas to liquid. Again,the same amount of energy is involved in both processes, but it is a lot more energy. |
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ESRT Page 1: Average Chemical Composition of Earth’s Crust, Hydrosphere, and Troposphere
This chart provides information about the chemical makeup of different parts of Earth.
This chart provides information about the chemical makeup of different parts of Earth.
- The crust is the hard, rocky outer layer of Earth. Notice that the chemical composition of the crust is expressed in two different ways: abundance by mass and abundance by volume. For example, oxygen is by far the most abundant element in Earth’s crust by both mass and volume. Silicon is the second most abundant element in Earth’s crust by mass. Potassium is the second most abundant element in Earth’s crust by volume.
- The hydrosphere is the liquid portion of Earth, which includes salt water in the oceans; the fresh water in lakes, streams and rivers; and all the water that is frozen in glaciers and in the polar ice caps. The chemical formula for water is H2O. This explains why the composition of the hydrosphere (by volume) is 66% hydrogen and 33% oxygen.
- The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth’s atmosphere, the layer that is closest to Earth’s surface. The troposphere contains many gases, but the two most abundant by volume are nitrogen and oxygen. Together, these two gases make up approximately 99% of all atmospheric gases.
ESRT Page 2: Generalized Landscape Regions of New York State
This map shows the landscape regions of New York State. A landscape is the general shape of the land surface. A landform is a single feature of a landscape. Landscapes are generally made of a variety of related landforms, such as mountains, valleys and rivers.
Most landscape regions can be classified as plains, plateaus or mountains, based on their relief. Relief is the difference in elevation from the highest point to the lowest point on the land.
On the Regents Exam, it may be necessary for you to use this map in conjunction with the other sections of the Earth Science Reference Tables. This map can be used with the “Generalized Bedrock Geology of New York State” map to locate cities and other geographic features on the landscape map. For example, looking at the landscape map and the bedrock geology map, you can see that Old Forge is located in the Adirondack Mountains, which are underlain by gneiss, quartzite and marble bedrock.
This map shows the landscape regions of New York State. A landscape is the general shape of the land surface. A landform is a single feature of a landscape. Landscapes are generally made of a variety of related landforms, such as mountains, valleys and rivers.
Most landscape regions can be classified as plains, plateaus or mountains, based on their relief. Relief is the difference in elevation from the highest point to the lowest point on the land.
- Plains are relatively flat landscapes with little relief.
- Plateaus have more relief (are less flat) than plains.
- Mountain landscapes have the greatest relief.
On the Regents Exam, it may be necessary for you to use this map in conjunction with the other sections of the Earth Science Reference Tables. This map can be used with the “Generalized Bedrock Geology of New York State” map to locate cities and other geographic features on the landscape map. For example, looking at the landscape map and the bedrock geology map, you can see that Old Forge is located in the Adirondack Mountains, which are underlain by gneiss, quartzite and marble bedrock.
ESRT Page 3: Generalized Bedrock Geology of New York State
This map gives the geologic age and rock type for the bedrock in different regions of New York State. Notice the different shading patterns on the map. At the bottom left of the map, you will find a key for the shading patterns on the map. Each shading pattern gives the geologic age and rock type for the bedrock in that region. For example, note that the oldest rock in New York State are Precambrian age. These rocks are exposed in the Adirondack Mountains in northern New York State and in the Hudson Highlands between New Jersey and Connecticut. Long Island contains the youngest “bedrock.”It is composed of geologically recent sediments of glacial origin.
On the Regents Exam, it may be necessary for you to use this map in conjunction with the other sections of the Earth Science Reference Tables. For example, the absolute ages of these bedrock regions and the fossils they contain can be determined by using this map along with the “Geologic History of New York State” chart on pages 8 and 9. You can also use this map in conjunction with the “Generalized Landscape Regions of New York State” map to find out about the landforms in which each bedrock is found.
Other information found on this map:
This map gives the geologic age and rock type for the bedrock in different regions of New York State. Notice the different shading patterns on the map. At the bottom left of the map, you will find a key for the shading patterns on the map. Each shading pattern gives the geologic age and rock type for the bedrock in that region. For example, note that the oldest rock in New York State are Precambrian age. These rocks are exposed in the Adirondack Mountains in northern New York State and in the Hudson Highlands between New Jersey and Connecticut. Long Island contains the youngest “bedrock.”It is composed of geologically recent sediments of glacial origin.
On the Regents Exam, it may be necessary for you to use this map in conjunction with the other sections of the Earth Science Reference Tables. For example, the absolute ages of these bedrock regions and the fossils they contain can be determined by using this map along with the “Geologic History of New York State” chart on pages 8 and 9. You can also use this map in conjunction with the “Generalized Landscape Regions of New York State” map to find out about the landforms in which each bedrock is found.
Other information found on this map:
- latitude and longitude coordinates
- city locations
- locations of major rivers and lakes
ESRT Page 4: Surface Ocean Currents
This map shows the major surface ocean currents. Black arrows indicate warm currents and white arrows indicate cool currents. The Coriolis Effect influences surface ocean currents. Currents north of the equator are deflected to the right. Currents south of the equator are deflected to the left. Notice in the map that most of the current sin the North Atlantic follow a circular path, curving constantly to the right in a great clockwise circle. Currents in the North Pacific also follow this pattern. Currents in the South Atlantic and South Pacific curve to the left in a counterclockwise pattern.
A similar effect is seen in global wind patterns, as seen in the Planetary Wind Belts graphic on page 14.
This map shows the major surface ocean currents. Black arrows indicate warm currents and white arrows indicate cool currents. The Coriolis Effect influences surface ocean currents. Currents north of the equator are deflected to the right. Currents south of the equator are deflected to the left. Notice in the map that most of the current sin the North Atlantic follow a circular path, curving constantly to the right in a great clockwise circle. Currents in the North Pacific also follow this pattern. Currents in the South Atlantic and South Pacific curve to the left in a counterclockwise pattern.
A similar effect is seen in global wind patterns, as seen in the Planetary Wind Belts graphic on page 14.
ESRT Page 5: Tectonic Plates
This map identifies the major tectonic plates, the three types of plate boundaries and the location of key hot spots around the world.The map can be used to identify and explain plate movements, earthquakes, volcanoes and related tectonic events. A key located at the bottom of the map describes the types of plate boundaries, and the arrows indicate their relative motion.
Types of Plate Boundaries:
Divergent boundaries are indicate by double lines on the map. These are places where tectonic plates are pulling away from one another. Mid-ocean ridges, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are indicated by a special symbol. At a mid-ocean ridge, molten rock from Earth’s interior (magma) rises toward the surface. At the same time, the lithosphere is spreading away from the ridge, allowing magma to come to the surface, cool and form new lithosphere.
Convergent boundaries are indicated by lines with black rectangles. These are places where tectonic plates collide. Subduction zones are places where one tectonic plate sinks, or subducts, beneath another. Recall that oceanic crust is denser than continental crust and therefore tends to subduct beneath continental crust where plates collide. A good example of this can be found along the western coast of South America. Here, the Nazca Plate is subjecting beneath the South American Plate. (Note that the black rectangles are always on the side of the overriding plate.) As the oceanic Nazca Plate descends, it begins to melt, causing magma to rise to the surface. For this reason, subduction zones are regions of volcanic activity.
Transform boundaries are indicated by a single, thin line. These are places where two plates slip past each other without creating or destroying lithosphere. The San Andreas Fault in California is an example of a transform boundary. Here, the Pacific Plate is moving northwest with respect to the North American Plate. At any place along the fault, the plates may be locked together by friction. When the force on the fault becomes great enough to overcome friction, the fault breaks suddenly and the plates move, generating an earthquake.
Hot Spots
A hot spot is a stationary zone of magma formation that extends from deep within Earth’s interior up to the surface (magma plume). Hot spots are volcanically active areas, commonly far from a tectonic plate boundary. The Hawaiian Islands are an excellent example of this. Scientists believe that the pattern of volcanic activity seen on the Hawaiian Islands is evidence that the Pacific Plate is moving over a stationary hot spot under the lithosphere.
This map identifies the major tectonic plates, the three types of plate boundaries and the location of key hot spots around the world.The map can be used to identify and explain plate movements, earthquakes, volcanoes and related tectonic events. A key located at the bottom of the map describes the types of plate boundaries, and the arrows indicate their relative motion.
Types of Plate Boundaries:
Divergent boundaries are indicate by double lines on the map. These are places where tectonic plates are pulling away from one another. Mid-ocean ridges, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are indicated by a special symbol. At a mid-ocean ridge, molten rock from Earth’s interior (magma) rises toward the surface. At the same time, the lithosphere is spreading away from the ridge, allowing magma to come to the surface, cool and form new lithosphere.
Convergent boundaries are indicated by lines with black rectangles. These are places where tectonic plates collide. Subduction zones are places where one tectonic plate sinks, or subducts, beneath another. Recall that oceanic crust is denser than continental crust and therefore tends to subduct beneath continental crust where plates collide. A good example of this can be found along the western coast of South America. Here, the Nazca Plate is subjecting beneath the South American Plate. (Note that the black rectangles are always on the side of the overriding plate.) As the oceanic Nazca Plate descends, it begins to melt, causing magma to rise to the surface. For this reason, subduction zones are regions of volcanic activity.
Transform boundaries are indicated by a single, thin line. These are places where two plates slip past each other without creating or destroying lithosphere. The San Andreas Fault in California is an example of a transform boundary. Here, the Pacific Plate is moving northwest with respect to the North American Plate. At any place along the fault, the plates may be locked together by friction. When the force on the fault becomes great enough to overcome friction, the fault breaks suddenly and the plates move, generating an earthquake.
Hot Spots
A hot spot is a stationary zone of magma formation that extends from deep within Earth’s interior up to the surface (magma plume). Hot spots are volcanically active areas, commonly far from a tectonic plate boundary. The Hawaiian Islands are an excellent example of this. Scientists believe that the pattern of volcanic activity seen on the Hawaiian Islands is evidence that the Pacific Plate is moving over a stationary hot spot under the lithosphere.
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ESRT Page 6: Rock Cycle in Earth’s Crust
This diagram gives information on how different types of rocks can form. Within the three boxes are the three rock types: sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic. The in-between stages of magma and sediments are shown in ovals because, although they are important substances in the rock cycle, they are not actually kinds of rock. The arrows show how rock materials change in the rock cycle. The words printed along the arrows describe the changes and the order in which they occur. For example, magma changes into igneous rock by the process of solidification. |
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ESRT Page 6: Relationship of Transported Particle Size to Water Velocity
This graph shows the relationship between the size of sediment particles and the minimum stream velocity required to transport them. The larger the sediment particles, the faster a stream must move keep them in motion. Notice that the graph also gives the particle size (diameter) for various kinds of sediments (clay, silt, sand, etc.). Sometimes, these sizes are needed in a question that has nothing to do with transport. For example, cobbles are rocks that are between 6.4 cm and 25.6 cm in diameter. The graph shows that a stream must travel at a minimum velocity of about 180 cm/sec in order to transport the smallest cobbles. |
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ESRT Page 6: Scheme for Igneous Rock Identification
This chart can help you understand and classify igneous rocks. Rocks with the smallest grains and the finest texture are at the top. As you go down the chart, the grains become larger and the texture becomes coarser. The difference in texture is due to the environment of formation. Extrusive rocks form from lava that cools quickly on or near Earth’s surface, resulting in small mineral grains (crystals). Intrusive rocks form form magma that cools slowly underground, resulting in large mineral grains. As you go right on the chart, the rocks become darker, denser and more magic. Mafic rocks are rich in magnesium (Mg) and Iron (Fe). Felicia rocks are rich in Aluminum (Al) and Silicon (Si).Use the bottom of the chart to identify the percentage of minerals in an igneous rock sample. Notice, for example, that rhyolite, granite and pegmatite have the same mineral composition, but differ in grain size. The percentage of each mineral is indicated by the scale on the side of the chart. For example, the most fells granite contains about 73% potassium feldspar, 10% quartz, 8% plagioclase feldspar, 7% biotite and 2% amphibole.
This chart can help you understand and classify igneous rocks. Rocks with the smallest grains and the finest texture are at the top. As you go down the chart, the grains become larger and the texture becomes coarser. The difference in texture is due to the environment of formation. Extrusive rocks form from lava that cools quickly on or near Earth’s surface, resulting in small mineral grains (crystals). Intrusive rocks form form magma that cools slowly underground, resulting in large mineral grains. As you go right on the chart, the rocks become darker, denser and more magic. Mafic rocks are rich in magnesium (Mg) and Iron (Fe). Felicia rocks are rich in Aluminum (Al) and Silicon (Si).Use the bottom of the chart to identify the percentage of minerals in an igneous rock sample. Notice, for example, that rhyolite, granite and pegmatite have the same mineral composition, but differ in grain size. The percentage of each mineral is indicated by the scale on the side of the chart. For example, the most fells granite contains about 73% potassium feldspar, 10% quartz, 8% plagioclase feldspar, 7% biotite and 2% amphibole.
ESRT Page 7: Scheme for Sedimentary Rock Identification
Use this chart to identify sedimentary rocks. The top of the chart gives information about clastic rocks - rocks made from sediment particles. The rocks in this part of the chart are ordered from top to bottom by particle size. For example, conglomerate is composed of large sediment particles, whereas shale is composed of very fine, clay-sized particles.
The bottom of the chart gives information about chemically and/or organically formed rocks. Rocks that form crystals from precipitation or evaporation of water would be halite (rock salt), gypsum or dolostone. Rocks that form from fossils or plant remains (organic material) could be coal or limestone. The far-right shows the symbols that are used to indicate each type f rock on maps and exam questions.
Use this chart to identify sedimentary rocks. The top of the chart gives information about clastic rocks - rocks made from sediment particles. The rocks in this part of the chart are ordered from top to bottom by particle size. For example, conglomerate is composed of large sediment particles, whereas shale is composed of very fine, clay-sized particles.
The bottom of the chart gives information about chemically and/or organically formed rocks. Rocks that form crystals from precipitation or evaporation of water would be halite (rock salt), gypsum or dolostone. Rocks that form from fossils or plant remains (organic material) could be coal or limestone. The far-right shows the symbols that are used to indicate each type f rock on maps and exam questions.
ESRT Page 7: Scheme for Metamorphic Rock Identification
Use this chart to identify metamorphic rocks. A great way to recognize metamorphic rocks is to look for bands, or foliation (organization of minerals into layers), in the sample. The top right section of the chart shows the four foliated metamorphic rocks. (slate, phyllite, schist and gneiss), listed in order of increasing grain size and increasing metamorphic changes. The shaded bars in the “Composition” column indicate the mineral composition of these rocks. The four nonaffiliated rocks in the bottom right section do not show progressive metamorphic changes. Each has a different grain size and mineral composition. The far-right column shows the symbols that are used to indicate each type of rock on maps and exam questions.
Use this chart to identify metamorphic rocks. A great way to recognize metamorphic rocks is to look for bands, or foliation (organization of minerals into layers), in the sample. The top right section of the chart shows the four foliated metamorphic rocks. (slate, phyllite, schist and gneiss), listed in order of increasing grain size and increasing metamorphic changes. The shaded bars in the “Composition” column indicate the mineral composition of these rocks. The four nonaffiliated rocks in the bottom right section do not show progressive metamorphic changes. Each has a different grain size and mineral composition. The far-right column shows the symbols that are used to indicate each type of rock on maps and exam questions.
ESRT Pages 8 & 9: Geologic History of New York State
This chart contains much information about Earth’s geologic history. You should be familiar with the information provided by this chart.
Look at the chart and note the following:
This chart contains much information about Earth’s geologic history. You should be familiar with the information provided by this chart.
Look at the chart and note the following:
- The left-most four columns show the major divisions of geologic time and the absolute age of these divisions in million of years before present. For example, the Permian Period began 299 million years ago and ended 251 million years ago.
- The “Life on Earth” column identifies major events int he evolution of life. This information comes from the fossil record. For example, the earliest fish appeared during the Late Cambrian Period.
- The “Rock Record in NYS” column indicates the ages of bedrock that can be found in New York State. Spaces between black bars represent unconformities, intervals for which there is no bedrock in New York State.
- The “Time Distribution of Fossils” column indicates when certain fossil organisms lived. Notice the organisms labeled A-Z on the bottom of the chart are index fossils. The letters that appear on the vertical lines show hen these particular organisms were alive. For example, the Y on the brachiopod bar indicates that, while there have been brachiopods in New York State since the Cambrian Period, the particular brachiopod named Eospiriferlived only during the Silurian Period, 444-426 million years ago.
- The “Important Geologic Events in New York State” column indicates important interactions between tectonic plates that cause mountain building events (orogenies) and other geologic events in New York State. For example, the Taconian Orogeny, in which the Taconic Mountains east of the Hudson River Valley formed, occurred early in the Ordovician Period.
- The maps in the “Inferred Positions of Earth’s Landmasses” column shows how the continents developed and how their positions shifted over millions of years. Specific positions of North America (shown in black) are indicated. For example, notice that 359 million years ago North America was located along the equator. As time passed, North America drifted north and then westward, creating the North Atlantic Ocean.
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ESRT Page 10: Inferred Properties of Earth’s Interior
This figure has 3 parts: a diagram showing the major layers of Earth’s interior, a pressure graph and a temperature graph. The word “inferred” in the title refers to the fact that much of the information is based on laboratory simulations and other investigations, rather than on direct observations. The top part of the figure illustrates Earth’s internal structure, as inferred by seismic wave analysis. The labels and surface features indicate that this diagram represents a region of Earth from the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, across North America, and into the Pacific Ocean. Notice the arrows that show convection currents at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and subduction of an oceanic plate beneath a continental plate at the trench. The diagram also shows the major layers of Earth’s interior: Earth’s top layer is the lithosphere, which includes the crust (shown in back) and the upper part of the mantle. Beneath the lithosphere is the asthenosphere, or plastic mantle. The flowing, or “plastic,” nature of this layer allows the rigid lithospheric plates to slowly move over Earth’s surface. The stiffer, more solid part of the mantle lies above the outer and inner cores. The density range of each layer is provided along the right edge of the diagram. Pressure Graph: The middle section is a graph that shows how pressure (in millions of atmospheres) change with depth. Pressure is caused by the weight of layers above; therefore, it should not be surprising to see that pressure increases with depth (direct relationship). Vertical dashed lines mark the boundaries between layers of Earth’s interior. Temperature Graph: The lower section is a graph that shows how actual temperature (dark line) changes with depth. The dashed line in the graph represents melting point temperature. When the melting point line is below the actual temperature line, materials are in a liquid state.Hen the melting point line is above the actual temperature line, materials are in a solid state. Notice that the melting point line ends at the bottom of the mantle and starts again at the top of the outer core. This abrupt change is due to a difference in composition between the mantle and the outer core. Vertical dashed lines mark the boundaries between the layers of Earth’s interior. |
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ESRT Page 11: Earthquake P-Wave and S-Wave Travel Time
This graph can be used to determine the distance to an earthquake’s epicenter by calculating the difference in arrival times of P-waves and S-waves. P-waves travel faster than S-waves and will always arrive at a seismograph station first. The greater the lag time between the arrival of P-waves and S-waves, the farther away is the epicenter. Note that each box on the y-axis is worth 20 seconds and each box on the x-axis is worth 200 km.
To calculate the distance to an epicenter:
This graph can be used to determine the distance to an earthquake’s epicenter by calculating the difference in arrival times of P-waves and S-waves. P-waves travel faster than S-waves and will always arrive at a seismograph station first. The greater the lag time between the arrival of P-waves and S-waves, the farther away is the epicenter. Note that each box on the y-axis is worth 20 seconds and each box on the x-axis is worth 200 km.
To calculate the distance to an epicenter:
- Calculate the difference in arrival time between the P-waves and the S-waves. For example, suppose the P-waves arrive at a seismograph station at 12:25 and S-waves arrive at 12:40. This is a difference of 5 minutes.
- Place the edge of a sheet of paper along the y-axis (Travel Time). On the left edge of the paper, mark a dot at time zero and another at the time corresponding to the difference you calculated in step 1. The distance between dots represents the difference in arrival times of the P-waves and S-waves.
- Keeping the lower dot on the lower graph line (P-wave line), and keeping the paper edge straight up and down, slide the paper the curves until the gap between the lines matches the gap between the dots. When you find this position, read straight down the edge of the paper to the x-axis. The x-axis value is distance form the epicenter.
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ESRT Page 12: Dewpoint and Relative Humidity
These charts can be used to determine the dew point and relative humidity from a set of psychrometer readings. Dew point is the temperature to which the air would have to be cooled (at constant pressure and constant water vapor content) in order to reach saturation — that is, to reach a temperature at which the air is holding all the water vapor it possibly can. The higher the dew point, the great the water vapor content of the air at a given temperature. Relative humidity is a ratio that compares the acute amount of water vapor in the air with he maximum amount of water vapor air can hold at a given temperature. For example, when the relative humidity is 30%, it means that the air is holding only 30% if the water vapor it could possibly hold at that temperature. To determine dew point and relative humidity from psychrometer readings:
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ESRT Page 13: Temperature
Use this figure to convert among the three temperature scales: Fahrenheit, Celsius and Kelvin. For example, to find the Celsius and Kelvin equivalents of 70ºF, first find 70º on the Fahrenheit scale. Look to the right to find the equal Celsius (32ºC) and Kelvin (305K) temperatures. Note that on the Fahrenheit scale, each small line is 2º. On the Celsius and Kelvin scales, each small line is 1º. |
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ESRT Page 13: Pressure
Use this figure to convert between two barometric pressure scales. One scale shows pressure as measured in millibars (mb). The other scale shows pressure as measured in inches of mercury. Note that on the millibar scale, each line is 1 mb. On the inches of mercury scale, each line is 0.01 inches of mercury. The dotted line shows the standard air pressure at sea level 1013.2 mb. |
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ESRT Page 13: Key to Weather Map Symbols
This figure is a key to the symbols found on weather maps. The top box provides a comprehensive key for interpreting a station model. The bottom box is a key to common weather map symbols.
Station Model
A station model is a summary of weather conditions near a weather observation station. Notice that in a station model, weather conditions are indicated by numbers and symbols. Read the explanations of the numbers and symbols. Also, pay attention to their positions around the center circle. Real station models may not contain as much detail as the one shown here, but the symbols and numbers will always be found in the same place.
Barometric Pressure
The barometric pressure indicator on a station model can be confusing. The key is to understand that normal pressures range from 950 mb to 1050 mb./notice that barometric pressure is always shown as a three-digit number. To find the pressure that this represents, do the following:
This figure is a key to the symbols found on weather maps. The top box provides a comprehensive key for interpreting a station model. The bottom box is a key to common weather map symbols.
Station Model
A station model is a summary of weather conditions near a weather observation station. Notice that in a station model, weather conditions are indicated by numbers and symbols. Read the explanations of the numbers and symbols. Also, pay attention to their positions around the center circle. Real station models may not contain as much detail as the one shown here, but the symbols and numbers will always be found in the same place.
Barometric Pressure
The barometric pressure indicator on a station model can be confusing. The key is to understand that normal pressures range from 950 mb to 1050 mb./notice that barometric pressure is always shown as a three-digit number. To find the pressure that this represents, do the following:
- Place a 9 or 10 in front of the three-digit number from the station model. If the number is above 500, place a 9 in front and if the number is below 500, place a 10 in front. For example, if the number on the station model is 196, it becomes 10196 and if the number on the station model is 768, it becomes 9768.
- Place a decimal point between the last two digits (for example, 10196 becomes 1019.6 and 9768 becomes 976.8)
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ESRT Page 14: Selected Properties of Earth’s Atmosphere
This figure provides information about the structure of Earth’s atmosphere. It can also be used to determine how temperature, pressure and water vapor content changes with altitude. Note that the altitude scale on the left is used for all three graphs. As you go up the scale, you are going away from Earth’s surface. Dotted lines mark the boundaries (pauses) between the layers of the atmosphere. Temperature Zones The dark line shows the temperature trends of the atmosphere. Notice that as altitude increases, temperature drops in the troposphere; then it rises in the stratosphere, then it drops again in the mesosphere; and then it rises again in the thermosphere. These temperature trends are what scientists use to distinguish between layers. Atmospheric Pressure The dark line shows the atmospheric pressure. Notice that pressure decreases steadily with increasing altitude (indirect relationship). This is because most of the air exists in the lower layers of the atmosphere. Water Vapor The dark line shows the concentration of water vapor in the atmosphere. Notice that the water vapor concentration decreases with increasing altitude (indirect relationship), and that the atmosphere contains no more water vapor content above the tropopause. |
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ESRT Page 14: Planetary Wind and Moisture Belts in the Troposphere
This diagram is a generalization of wind patterns on Earth. The inner circle represents Earth’s surface. Going around the inner circle are solid arrows that show large convection cells that create the prevailing winds. Notice the jet streams between convection cells. Low pressure occurs where the air is rising. High pressure occurs where the air is sinking. The dashed arrows show wind direction over the surface — these are the surface portions of the convection cells. The arrows are curved to show the Coriolis effect, which deflects winds to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
The diagram shows how rising and sinking air creates wet and dry zones at particular latitudes. For example, at the equator the arrows are going away from Earth’s surface, which means the air is rising. This warm, moist air cools as it rises, creating clouds and precipitation. At 30º north and south latitudes, the air is sinking, shown by arrows going toward Earth’s surface. This dry air warms as it sinks, which explains why many of the world’s deserts are found at these latitudes.
This diagram is a generalization of wind patterns on Earth. The inner circle represents Earth’s surface. Going around the inner circle are solid arrows that show large convection cells that create the prevailing winds. Notice the jet streams between convection cells. Low pressure occurs where the air is rising. High pressure occurs where the air is sinking. The dashed arrows show wind direction over the surface — these are the surface portions of the convection cells. The arrows are curved to show the Coriolis effect, which deflects winds to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
The diagram shows how rising and sinking air creates wet and dry zones at particular latitudes. For example, at the equator the arrows are going away from Earth’s surface, which means the air is rising. This warm, moist air cools as it rises, creating clouds and precipitation. At 30º north and south latitudes, the air is sinking, shown by arrows going toward Earth’s surface. This dry air warms as it sinks, which explains why many of the world’s deserts are found at these latitudes.
ESRT Page 14: Electromagnetic Spectrum
This chart shows the range of wavelengths of electromagnetic energy. Wavelength is the distance from the top of one wave to the top of the following wave. In the chart, shorter wavelengths are to the left and longer wavelengths are to the right. Notice that only a narrow band of electromagnetic energy is visible as light. The visible light portion is expanded to show the range of colors (wavelengths) that make up visible light.
This chart shows the range of wavelengths of electromagnetic energy. Wavelength is the distance from the top of one wave to the top of the following wave. In the chart, shorter wavelengths are to the left and longer wavelengths are to the right. Notice that only a narrow band of electromagnetic energy is visible as light. The visible light portion is expanded to show the range of colors (wavelengths) that make up visible light.
ESRT Page 15: Characteristic of Stars
This graph is also called the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram, or H-R diagram, in honor of the two astronomers who developed it. It relates to a star’s absolute luminosity (the amount of light it emits) and its surface temperature (which indicates its color). It is important to understand that the graph shows how the star’s luminosity compares to the luminosity of the sun. For example, a star with a luminosity of 100 would look 100 times brighter than our sun, if the two were ever seen form the same distance.
Notice that most stars fall into distance groups. Most of the stars are classified as main sequence stars, which run from the upper left to the lower right of the graph. In all main sequence stars, nuclear fusion converts hydrogen into helium at a stable rate. Our sun is a main sequence star. Blue and white stars are the hottest and brightest stars. Some white stars are dim, echoes they are very small. These are the white dwarfs. Red stars are the coolest stars, so they tend to be dimmer than other stars. If a red star is bright, it must be very large; it must be a red giant or a red supergiant, located in the upper right of the graph. Stars of special significance are labeled by name.
This graph is also called the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram, or H-R diagram, in honor of the two astronomers who developed it. It relates to a star’s absolute luminosity (the amount of light it emits) and its surface temperature (which indicates its color). It is important to understand that the graph shows how the star’s luminosity compares to the luminosity of the sun. For example, a star with a luminosity of 100 would look 100 times brighter than our sun, if the two were ever seen form the same distance.
Notice that most stars fall into distance groups. Most of the stars are classified as main sequence stars, which run from the upper left to the lower right of the graph. In all main sequence stars, nuclear fusion converts hydrogen into helium at a stable rate. Our sun is a main sequence star. Blue and white stars are the hottest and brightest stars. Some white stars are dim, echoes they are very small. These are the white dwarfs. Red stars are the coolest stars, so they tend to be dimmer than other stars. If a red star is bright, it must be very large; it must be a red giant or a red supergiant, located in the upper right of the graph. Stars of special significance are labeled by name.
ESRT Page 15: Solar System Data
This chart provides a tremendous amount of information about the planets in our solar system, including each planet’s mass, density, diameter and average distance from the sun.It includes similar information for the sun and Earth’s moon. Planets are listed in order of increasing distance form the sun.
Important Facts and Relationships to Note:
This chart provides a tremendous amount of information about the planets in our solar system, including each planet’s mass, density, diameter and average distance from the sun.It includes similar information for the sun and Earth’s moon. Planets are listed in order of increasing distance form the sun.
Important Facts and Relationships to Note:
- The four planets closest to the sun are smaller and less massive than the outer planets, yet they are much denser. This is because the inner planets are mainly composed of rocks and metal, whereas the outer planets are mainly composed of gas.
- Periods of revolution increases with increasing distance from he sun.
- Venus’s period of rotation is longer than its period of revolution (“a day is longer than a year”).
ESRT Page 16: Properties of Common Minerals
This chart lists some of the most useful properties for distinguishing one mineral from another. To identify a mineral, start on the left side of the chart by identifying the luster of your mineral sample. Does the mineral look like metal (metallic luster) or dull (nonmetallic luster)? After you have answered this question, look at the columns to the right, checking each of the properties listed (hardness, cleavage, fracture, color, distinguishing characteristics, etc.). Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to split along certain planes at certain angles. If a mineral exhibits cleavage, there is more information about how the mineral cleaves in the “Distinguishing Characteristics” column. In addition to these useful properties, the chart also provides information about the chemical composition and common uses of each mineral. The list of chemical symbols at the bottom of the page can be used to decode a mineral’s chemical composition.
This chart lists some of the most useful properties for distinguishing one mineral from another. To identify a mineral, start on the left side of the chart by identifying the luster of your mineral sample. Does the mineral look like metal (metallic luster) or dull (nonmetallic luster)? After you have answered this question, look at the columns to the right, checking each of the properties listed (hardness, cleavage, fracture, color, distinguishing characteristics, etc.). Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to split along certain planes at certain angles. If a mineral exhibits cleavage, there is more information about how the mineral cleaves in the “Distinguishing Characteristics” column. In addition to these useful properties, the chart also provides information about the chemical composition and common uses of each mineral. The list of chemical symbols at the bottom of the page can be used to decode a mineral’s chemical composition.
