ESRT Page 1: Radioactive Decay Data
This table an be used to solve problems involving the calculations of absolute age. Half-life is the amount of time it takes for one half of a radioactive sample to change into its decay product. For example, it takes 5.7 x 103 (5,700) years for one half of a given carbon-14 sample to change into its decay product, nitrogen-14 (N14). |
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ESRT Page 1: Specific Heats of Common Materials
Specific heat is energy needed to change the temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1º C. Specific heat is important for understanding climate. Water has a higher specific heat than land materials. Because of this, water changes temperature more slowly than does land. |
ESRT Page 1: Equations
Eccentricity of an ellipse: Use this formula to calculate eccentricity, the deviation of a planet’s orbit from a perfect circle. Eccentricity can range from 0 to 1. Gradient: Use this formula to calculate the change in a field value (elevation, humidity, temperature, etc.) between two points a certain distance apart. Rate of change: Use this formula to calculate how the value of a variable (humidity, temperature, sea level, etc.) changes with time. Density of a substance: Use this formula to calculate density, the ratio of the mass of a substance to its volume. This formula can be used to find volume (Mass/Density = Volume) and mass (Density x Volume = Mass) |
ESRT Page 1: Properties of Water
When water changes state, latent heat is either absorbed or given off (released). Latent heat is an important reservoir of atmospheric energy. Melting is the change from the solid to the liquid state. Freezing is the change from liquid to solid. Notice that the same amount of energy is involved in both processes. Vaporization is the change from liquid to gas. The opposite process, condensation, is the change from gas to liquid. Again,the same amount of energy is involved in both processes, but it is a lot more energy. |
ESRT Page 6: Rock Cycle in Earth’s Crust
This diagram gives information on how different types of rocks can form. Within the three boxes are the three rock types: sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic. The in-between stages of magma and sediments are shown in ovals because, although they are important substances in the rock cycle, they are not actually kinds of rock. The arrows show how rock materials change in the rock cycle. The words printed along the arrows describe the changes and the order in which they occur. For example, magma changes into igneous rock by the process of solidification. |
ESRT Page 6: Relationship of Transported Particle Size to Water Velocity
This graph shows the relationship between the size of sediment particles and the minimum stream velocity required to transport them. The larger the sediment particles, the faster a stream must move keep them in motion. Notice that the graph also gives the particle size (diameter) for various kinds of sediments (clay, silt, sand, etc.). Sometimes, these sizes are needed in a question that has nothing to do with transport. For example, cobbles are rocks that are between 6.4 cm and 25.6 cm in diameter. The graph shows that a stream must travel at a minimum velocity of about 180 cm/sec in order to transport the smallest cobbles. |
ESRT Page 10: Inferred Properties of Earth’s Interior
This figure has 3 parts: a diagram showing the major layers of Earth’s interior, a pressure graph and a temperature graph. The word “inferred” in the title refers to the fact that much of the information is based on laboratory simulations and other investigations, rather than on direct observations. The top part of the figure illustrates Earth’s internal structure, as inferred by seismic wave analysis. The labels and surface features indicate that this diagram represents a region of Earth from the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, across North America, and into the Pacific Ocean. Notice the arrows that show convection currents at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and subduction of an oceanic plate beneath a continental plate at the trench. The diagram also shows the major layers of Earth’s interior: Earth’s top layer is the lithosphere, which includes the crust (shown in back) and the upper part of the mantle. Beneath the lithosphere is the asthenosphere, or plastic mantle. The flowing, or “plastic,” nature of this layer allows the rigid lithospheric plates to slowly move over Earth’s surface. The stiffer, more solid part of the mantle lies above the outer and inner cores. The density range of each layer is provided along the right edge of the diagram. Pressure Graph: The middle section is a graph that shows how pressure (in millions of atmospheres) change with depth. Pressure is caused by the weight of layers above; therefore, it should not be surprising to see that pressure increases with depth (direct relationship). Vertical dashed lines mark the boundaries between layers of Earth’s interior. Temperature Graph: The lower section is a graph that shows how actual temperature (dark line) changes with depth. The dashed line in the graph represents melting point temperature. When the melting point line is below the actual temperature line, materials are in a liquid state.Hen the melting point line is above the actual temperature line, materials are in a solid state. Notice that the melting point line ends at the bottom of the mantle and starts again at the top of the outer core. This abrupt change is due to a difference in composition between the mantle and the outer core. Vertical dashed lines mark the boundaries between the layers of Earth’s interior. |
ESRT Page 12: Dewpoint and Relative Humidity
These charts can be used to determine the dew point and relative humidity from a set of psychrometer readings. Dew point is the temperature to which the air would have to be cooled (at constant pressure and constant water vapor content) in order to reach saturation — that is, to reach a temperature at which the air is holding all the water vapor it possibly can. The higher the dew point, the great the water vapor content of the air at a given temperature. Relative humidity is a ratio that compares the acute amount of water vapor in the air with he maximum amount of water vapor air can hold at a given temperature. For example, when the relative humidity is 30%, it means that the air is holding only 30% if the water vapor it could possibly hold at that temperature. To determine dew point and relative humidity from psychrometer readings:
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ESRT Page 13: Temperature
Use this figure to convert among the three temperature scales: Fahrenheit, Celsius and Kelvin. For example, to find the Celsius and Kelvin equivalents of 70ºF, first find 70º on the Fahrenheit scale. Look to the right to find the equal Celsius (32ºC) and Kelvin (305K) temperatures. Note that on the Fahrenheit scale, each small line is 2º. On the Celsius and Kelvin scales, each small line is 1º. |
ESRT Page 13: Pressure
Use this figure to convert between two barometric pressure scales. One scale shows pressure as measured in millibars (mb). The other scale shows pressure as measured in inches of mercury. Note that on the millibar scale, each line is 1 mb. On the inches of mercury scale, each line is 0.01 inches of mercury. The dotted line shows the standard air pressure at sea level 1013.2 mb. |
ESRT Page 14: Selected Properties of Earth’s Atmosphere
This figure provides information about the structure of Earth’s atmosphere. It can also be used to determine how temperature, pressure and water vapor content changes with altitude. Note that the altitude scale on the left is used for all three graphs. As you go up the scale, you are going away from Earth’s surface. Dotted lines mark the boundaries (pauses) between the layers of the atmosphere. Temperature Zones The dark line shows the temperature trends of the atmosphere. Notice that as altitude increases, temperature drops in the troposphere; then it rises in the stratosphere, then it drops again in the mesosphere; and then it rises again in the thermosphere. These temperature trends are what scientists use to distinguish between layers. Atmospheric Pressure The dark line shows the atmospheric pressure. Notice that pressure decreases steadily with increasing altitude (indirect relationship). This is because most of the air exists in the lower layers of the atmosphere. Water Vapor The dark line shows the concentration of water vapor in the atmosphere. Notice that the water vapor concentration decreases with increasing altitude (indirect relationship), and that the atmosphere contains no more water vapor content above the tropopause. |